UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA 

COLLEGE   OF   AGRICULTURE 

AGRICULTURAL    EXPERIMENT   STATION 

BERKELEY,  CALIFORNIA 

CIRCULAR  302 

January,  1926 

THE  SUGAR  BEET  IN  CALIFORNIA1 

R.  L.  ADAMS 


Fig.  1. — The  largest  sugar  beet  factory  in  the  United  States,  that  of  the 
Spreckels  Sugar' Company,  located  in  Monterey  County.  Capacity  4200  tons  of 
beets  every  24  hours.     Built  in  1898.     Salinas  River  in  foreground. 


BISE  OF  THE  SUGAR  BEET  INDUSTRY  IN  CALIFORNIA 

The  sugar  beet  industry  in  California  has  been  commercially 
important  for  more  than  half  a  century.  Beet  raising  for  sugar 
making  purposes  began  in  1870  with  the  erection  and  successful 
operation  of  a  factory  at  Alvarado  in  Alameda  County.  The  initial 
run  of  this  plant  marked  the  first  successful  commercial  venture  in 
extracting  sugar  from  beets  in  the  United  States,  although  other 
attempts,  all  unsuccessful,  had  been  previously  made  in  other 
localities. 

By  1900  the  sugar  beet  acreage  in  California  had  increased  to  a 
total  of  41,242  acres  and  produced  a  crop  valued  at  about  $1,500,000. 
Ten  years  later  the  acreage  had  again  increased  to  nearly  double 
(78,957  acres),  while  the  product  had  practically  trebled  ($4,320,532). 
This  increase  in  income  was  largely  due  to  higher  yields  per  acre.2 

i  Rewritten  and  revised  to  take  the  place  of  College  of  Agriculture  Circular 
165,  published  May  1917. 

2  Figures  from  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  Yearbooks. 


UNIVERSITY   OF    CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT   STATION 


PRESENT  STATUS  OF  THE  INDUSTRY  IN  CALIFORNIA 

Since  1921  the  sugar  beet  business  has  declined  in  California.  The 
reasons  for  decreasing  acreage  are  several.  Perhaps  the  most  out- 
standing is  the  limitations  set  by  a  small  leaf  hopper  (Eutettix  tenella 
Baker)  which  causes  the  so-called  "sugar  beet  blight,"  a  description 
of  which  is  included  under  "Beet  Troubles. " 

Competition  with  other  crops  which  can  be  grown  on  lands  best 
suited  to  sugar  beet  culture  has  had  its  effect.  In  the  lower  Salinas 
Valley,  lettuce,  artichokes,  peas  and  other  truck  crops  are  being 
planted  on  lands  formerly  used  for  sugar  beets.  In  the  Watsonville 
district,  apple  orchards  and  berry  plantations  now  occupy  the  land 
once  utilized  for  beets.  In  Alameda  County,  truck  crops  and  orchards 
vie  with  sugar  beets  for  the  use  of  the  land.  In  southern  California, 
territory  formerly  in  beets  has  been  taken  over  for  suburban  resi- 
dences, for  truck  gardens,  for  citrus  and  walnut  orchards,  and  in  a 
few  instances  for  outfits  drilling  for  oil.  At  times  scarcity  of  sufficient 
labor  to  do  the  necessary  hand  work  of  thinning,  hoeing,  pulling, 
topping  and  loading  has  had  its  effect.  Occasionally  high  prices  tem- 
porarily obtainable  for  competing  crops  have  caused  a  swing  from 
beets  to  some  other  annual  crop.  Damage  by  nematodes  has  caused 
some  loss  of  acreage. 

The  following  table  rather  strikingly  shows  what  has  happened  to 
the  sugar  beet  industry  during  the  past  twelve  years : 

TABLE  1 
Sugar  Beet  Acreages  and  Sugar  Manufactured  in  California 


Year 

r 

Number  of 
factories  in 
operation 

Acreage 

harvested 

(acres) 

Beets  worked 

(tons) 

Sugar  made 
(tons) 

Average  length 
of  run 
(days) 

1913 

12 

10 

11 

11 

14 

13 

10 

10 

9 

7 

6 

8 

127,610 

104,000 

122,737 

141,097 

161,909 

100,684 

107,000 

123,000 

121,000 

57,000 

61,000 

84,000 

1,138,003 

1,082,000 

1,249,111 

1,462,895 

1,321,716 

845,728 

805,000 

1,052,000 

1,040,000 

424,000 

579,000 

783,000 

171,208 
169,004 
195,393 
236,322 
209,325 
122,795 
131,000 
168,000 
171,000 
73,000 
100,000 
131,000 

99 

1914 

97 

1915 

97 

1916 

108 

1917 

92 

1918 

81 

1919 

76 

1920 

90 

1921... 

84 

1922 

74 

1923 

88 

1924 

77 

Figures  from  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  Yearbooks. 


Circ.  302] 


THE   SUGAR   BEET   IN    CALIFORNIA 


BEET  GKOWING  AEEAS  OF  CALIFORNIA,  1925 

Sugar  beets  are  grown  commercially  in  three  general  areas  of 
California.  The  general  boundaries  of  these  three  areas  are  indicated 
on  the  accompanying  sketch  map  (fig.  2). 


Fig.  2. — Sketch  map  showing  principal  beet  growing  areas  of  California,  and 
locations  of  factories  (as  of  July  1,  1925).  Key  numbers  refer  to  factories  as 
listed  in  table  2  of  text. 


The  largest  is  that  showing  the  five  factories  at  Alvarado, 
Spreckels,  Hamilton  City,  Manteca,  and  Tracy.  This  territory 
includes  the  Salinas  Valley  to  King  City  in  Monterey  County;  the 
Pajaro  Valley  in  the  vicinity  of  Pajaro  to  the  bay  in  Monterey  and 


4  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 

Santa  Cruz  counties;  the  San  Juan  and  San  Benito  Valley  in  San 
Benito  County ;  the  Pleasanton  Valley  in  Alameda  County ;  the  terri- 
tory around  Alvarado;  relatively  small  acreages  in  the  southeastern 
part  of  Marin  County,  in  southern  Napa  County,  and  central  Solano 
County;  the  lower  San  Joaquin  Valley  from  Modesto  north  to  and 
including  the  Stockton  delta ;  the  Sacramento  Valley  south  from  near 
Tehama  to  and  including  the  Sacramento  delta;  and  the  territory  in 
the  vicinity  of  Gazelle  and  Macdoel  in  Siskiyou  County.  Much  of  the 
beet  acreage  of  the  deltas  extends  from  Antioch  to  Marysville  and 
includes  Reclamation  Districts  1660,  1500,  and  108;  the  territory  in 
the  area  lying  south  and  east  of  the  city  of  Sacramento ;  the  Holland 
Land  District,  Hastings  Tract,  Egbert  Tract,  Pearson  Tract,  Bethel 
Tract,  Grand  Island,  Liberty  Island,  Brannan  Island,  Sherman 
Island,  Terminus  Island,  Jersey  Island  and  Quimby  Island.  Some 
acreage  is  to  be  found  along  the  American,  Feather,  and  Yuba  rivers 
in  the  vicinity  of  Marysville.  All  the  lands  enclosed  in  this  big  area 
are  not  in  proven  sugar  beet  territory.  Planting  in  the  Sacramento 
Valley  above  the  general  latitude  of  Sacramento  is  still  in  the  experi- 
mental stage,  and  the  same  statement  generally  applies  to  the  San 
Joaquin  Valley  south  of  Modesto. 

The  south-central-coast  area  is  a  relatively  small  but  highly  pro- 
ductive territory,  supplying  the  Betteravia  mill.  Beets  are  here 
raised  in  a  relatively  compact  territory  extending  from  just  south  of 
the  town  of  San  Luis  Obispo  south  to  include  the  Arroyo  Grande 
Valley,  the  Santa  Maria  Valley,  the  Lompoc  Valley,  the  coastal  area 
of  the  Santa  Ynez  Valley  and  lying  generally  in  the  southwestern 
corner  of  San  Luis  Obispo  County  and  the  northwestern  corner  of 
Santa  Barbara  County. 

The  southern  coast  area  takes  in  the  territory  around  Oxnard 
adjacent  to  the  coast  and  up  the  Santa  Clara  Valley  in  Ventura 
County,  the  San  Fernando  Valley  in  Los  Angeles  County,  the  terri- 
tory laying  south  and  east  of  the  city  of  Los  Angeles,  an  area  in  the 
extreme  southwestern  corner  of  San  Bernardino  County  in  the 
vicinity  of  Chino,  and  an  area  in  the  western  portion  of  Orange 
County  including  some  territory  in  the  general  vicinity  of  Anaheim 
and  Santa  Ana. 

Extension  of  the  sugar  beet  growing  acreage  during  recent  years 
has  occurred  in  the  Stockton  and  Sacramento  deltas.  In  1920  there 
were  but  57  acres  reported  planted  to  beets  on  the  islands  lying 
between  Antioch  and  Sacramento.  In  1921  the  acreage  rose  to  250 
acres,  in  1922  to  400  acres,  in  1923  to  4000  acres,  in  1924  to  7000 
acres,  and  in  1925  to  30,000  acres. 


CIRC.  302]  THE   SUGAR   BEET   IN    CALIFORNIA  5 

Some  experimenting  is  being  done  with  the  object  of  extending 
the  acreage  into  the  San  Joaquin  Valley.  Company  officials  are 
unanimous,  however,  in  pointing  out  that  if  a  way  can  be  found  to 
combat  the  blight  California  farmers  are  in  a  position  to  raise  more 
beets  than  have  ever  been  grown  before.  The  blight  is  the  greatest 
limiting  factor  to  the  extension  of  acreage,  and  is  the  one  outstanding 
thing  to  be  considered  by  the  prospective  grower  of  beets  in  new 
territory.  It  is  futile  to  attempt  to  raise  sugar  beets  under  condi- 
tions which  expose  the  plants  during  the  early  stages  of  growth  to 
infection  by  feeding  leaf  hoppers. 

Commercial  plantings  were  seeded  in  the  vicinity  of  Gazelle  and 
Macdoel  in  Siskiyou  County  in  1925.  The  feasibility  of  sugar  beets 
for  these  localities  is  still  unproved. 


Fig.  3. — Sugar  beets  growing  in  the  Sacramento  delta,  near  Knight 's  Landing. 


LOCATION  OF  SUGAR  BEET  FACTORIES 

Ten  factories  are  available  for  milling  sugar  beets.  Three  are 
located  in  Orange  County,  two  in  San  Joaquin  County,  and  one  each 
in  Ventura,  Santa  Barbara,  Monterey,  Alameda,  and  Glenn  counties. 

The  names  of  the  various  companies,  location  of  plants,  year 
when  built,  and  present  milling  capacity  are  set  forth  in  table  2. 

These  factories  are  the  survivors  of  sixteen  plants  erected  at 
various  times  in  California.  In  1891  a  400-ton  plant  was  erected  in 
Chino,  later  enlarged  to  1100  tons,  in  1895.  In  1925  this  plant  was 
dismantled  and  part  shipped  to  Nebraska.  The  Anaheim  Sugar  Com- 
pany's 1200-ton  plant,  erected  in  1911  at  Anaheim  in  Orange  County, 
was  moved  in  1925  to  Montana.  Others  which  have  been  moved  away, 
dismantled,  or  are  seeking  new  locations  include  a  1000-ton  plant  at 
Huntington  Beach,  Orange  County,  which  has  not  been  operated 
since  1920;  the  Visalia  plant,  built  in  1906,  which  has  been  removed 


b  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 

to  Hooper,  Utah ;  a  1000-ton  plant  first  built  at  Crockett,  later  moved 
to  Corcoran  in  Kings  County  and  from  there  moved  to  Preston, 
Idaho,  and  a  600-ton  plant  erected  in  New  Delhi,  in  Orange  County, 
in  1908.  The  old  Watsonville  plant,  built  in  1888 — the  second  mill 
to  operate  successfully  in  California — was  dismantled  so  that  parts 
could  be  used  in  the  building  of  the  Fallon  (Nevada)  plant,  and  in 
the  Cooperative  plant  at  Santa  Ana. 

TABLE  2 

Location  of  Sugar  Beet  Factories  in  California 


Key 

No. 

(on 
map), 
page  3 

Name  of  company 

Location  of  plant 

Year 
plant 
was 
built 

Present 
capacity 

(e.g.,  tons 
of  beets  per 
per  24  hrs.) 

1 

Alameda  Sugar  Co 

Alvarado,  Alameda  County. 

Los  Alamitos,  Orange  Coun- 
ty. 

Oxnard,  Ventura  County 

Betteravia,    Santa  Barbara 
County. 

Spreckels,  Monterey  County 

Hamilton  City,  Glenn  Coun- 
ty. 

Huntington   Beach,    Orange 
County. 

Dyer,  Orange  County 

1870 
1897 

1898 
1899 

1899 
1906 

1911 

1912 
1917 

1917 

800 

2 

3 
4 

Los  Alamitos  Sugar  Co 

American  Beet  Sugar  Co 

Union  Sugar  Co 

900 

3,000 
1,200 

4,200 

5 

Spreckels  Sugar  Co 

6 

7 
8 

Sacramento    Valley    Sugar 

Co. 
Holly  Sugar  Corporation.... 

Holly  Sugar  Corporation... 
Spreckels  Sugar  Co 

700 
1,400 
1,200 

9 

Manteca,  San  Joaquin  Coun- 
ty. 
Tracy,  San  Joaquin  County.. 

1,200 

10 

Alameda  Sugar  Co 

500 

Of  the  ten  plants  listed  in  table  2,  only  six  have  been  operated 
regularly  each  season  for  the  past  five  years.  These  six  are  the  plants 
at  Alvarado,  Los  Alamitos,  Oxnard,  Betteravia,  Spreckels,  and  Dyer. 


GENERAL  REQUIREMENTS  FOR  SUGAR  BEET  PRODUCTION 

California  is  climatically  well  adapted  to  the  production  of  sugar 
beets  because  absence  of  rain  from  May  to  October  permits  the 
beets  to  mature  normally,  and  to  be  readily  harvested,  while  the 
control  of  soil  moisture  by  irrigation  is  of  material  assistance  in 
providing  satisfactory  conditions. 

Sugar  beets  will  yield  profitable  crops  on  widely  varying  soils, 
ranging  from  sandy  loams  to  heavy  adobes,  provided  the  land  is 
properly  handled.     Depth  is  essential  for  the  best  development,  and 


CIRC.  302]  THE   SUGAR  BEET   IN   CALIFORNIA  7 

two,  three,  or  more  feet  of  uniform  soil  free  from  hardpan  or  a  high 
water  table  is  necessary.  The  heavier  types  of  soil  tend  to  produce 
the  largest  tonnage,  but  are  somewhat  more  difficult  to  work. 

While  beets  will  tolerate  more  alkali  than  most  field  crops,  lands 
heavily  charged  with  sodium  salts  will  not  produce  the  best  crops. 
Sodium  sulphate  is  less  injurious  than  sodium  chloride  or  sodium 
carbonate. 

Ideal  land  for  beet  culture  is  smooth,  with  a  gentle  fall  sufficient  to 
insure  good  drainage,  yet  suitable  for  furrow  irrigation,  and  consists 
of  soil  of  a  friable  clay  loam  nature,  four  or  more  feet  in  depth.  The 
subsoil  should  be  free  from  hardpan  or  preponderating  amounts  of 
gravel.  Organic  matter  and  plant  food  must  be  abundant  and  alkali 
must  not  be  present  in  harmful  quantities.  Soils  producing  good 
yields  of  barley,  potatoes,  beans,  alfalfa,  corn,  or  any  other  ordinary 
field  crop,  usually  prove  to  be  good  beet  soils. 

Beets  can  use  generous  amounts  of  water  profitably,  and  in  fact, 
ample  moisture  is  essential  for  the  production  of  heavy  tonnage. 
Different  soils  require  different  amounts  of  water,  but  as  nearly  as  a 
general  rule  can  be  given,  from  eighteen  to  thirty  acre-inches  of  water, 
properly  distributed  or  available  throughout  the  growing  season  (as 
explained  under  irrigation)  are  required  to  mature  the  crop. 

To  make  its  best  growth  the  sugar  beet  requires  a  long  growing 
season.  Once  established  the  growing  plants  are  not  especially  sen- 
sitive to  either  light  frosts  or  temporary  spells  of  hot  weather. 
Sections  having  a  growing  period  of  from  150  to  200  days,  where 
temperatures  do  not  drop  below  20°  F.  or  rise  much  above  100°  F., 
with  ample  sunshine  to  promote  sugar  formation,  and  not  subject  to 
too  severe  drying  winds  or  sudden  changes  in  temperature  are  suited 
to  sugar-beet  production.  Obviously  such  conditions  are  to  be  found 
in  areas  lying  along  the  coast  and  subject  to  ocean  influence. 


BEET  GROWING  CONTRACTS 

In  arranging  for  the  growing  of  beets,  the  interested  grower  and 
the  mill  sign  a  contract,  the  terms  of  which  govern  the  growing  and 
sale  of  the  crop.  This  contract  is  signed  early  in  the  season,  even 
before  the  seed  is  planted,  and  stipulates  the  conditions  under  which 
beets  must  be  raised  if  they  are  to  be  acceptable  to  the  sugar  company. 
Usually  the  contract  indicates  the  acreage  to  be  sown,  binds  the  com- 
pany to  advance  and  supply  the  seed  at  a  given  price,  limits  the 
grower  to  the  use  of  this  seed,  regulates  the  time  of  harvesting  and 


8  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 

delivery,"  points  out  the  place  of  delivery,  sets  the  rate  of  payment, 
and  allows  deductions  for  improperly  topped  or  dirty  beets. 

Printed  forms  are  used  for  the  purpose  of  setting  forth  the 
various  stipulations.  Blank  spaces  provide  for  recording  the  date  of 
agreement,  name  and  address  of  grower,  description  of  land  where 
beets  are  to  be  grown,  acreage  to  be  planted,  point  where  beets  are  to 
be  delivered,  terms  of  lease  if  rented  property,  and  signatures. 

The  full  standard  agreement  as  used  in  California  is  rather  brief. 
The  wording  and  conditions  vary  somewhat  as  between  different 
factories  but  in  effect  the  differences  are  slight.  It  begins  somewhat 
at  follows : 

COMPANY 

California. 

This  Agreement  made  this  day  192 

between of  County  of  , 

State  of  California,   the   Grower,  and   Sugar  Company,   a 

a  corporation,  as  follows: 

1.  The    grower    agrees    to    plant,    cultivate,    harvest    and    deliver,    during    the 

cropping  season  beginning  and  ending  when  the  crop 

is  harvested,  not  later  than  the  close  of  the  factory  season,  19 ,  in  a  good, 

farmer-like    manner,    acres    of    sugar    beets    on    the 

following  described  land  County,  California: 


Then  follows  a  statement  of  the  conditions  governing  the  planting, 
caring  for,  harvesting  and  delivering  of  the  final  crop.  Paragraphs 
inserted  in  the  standard  contracts  in  use  by  California  sugar  com- 
panies provide  as  follows : 

Grower  furnishes  land  for  beets,  prepares  it,  plants,  replants,  blocks,  thins, 
cultivates,  irrigates,  harvests,  and  delivers  crop  in  a  farmer-like  manner  and 
in  conformity  with  the  directions  of  the  company. 

Company  furnishes  necessary  beet  seed  at  a  cost  to  the  grower  of  fifteen 
cents  per  pound;  use  of  other  seed  is  prohibited.  Seed  furnished  by  the  Company 
is  not  to  be  planted  upon  any  land  not  covered  by  the  contract ;  any  seed  fur- 
nished and  not  planted  is  returnable  in  good  order  to  the  Company,  the  Grower 
to  receive  credit. 

Grower  agrees  that  nil  beets  grown  by  him  under  contract  will  be  delivered, 
in  quantities  as  ordered  by  the  Company,  to  the  Company 's  factory  shed  or  aboard 
cats,  as  the  Company  may  direct,  properly  topped  at  the  base  of  the  bottom  leaf, 


Circ.  302] 


THE    SUGAR    BEET   IN    CALIFORNIA 


free  from  dirt,  stones,  trash  and  other  foreign  substances,  and  subject  to  proper 
deduction  for  tare.  The  Grower  agrees  to  protect  beets  from  sun  while  in 
the  field  after  removal  from  the  ground. 

Irrigation  after  July  15  without  written  permission  is  forbidden 
in  the  contract  of  the  northern  California  companies. 


BEET  PKICES  AND  METHODS  OF  PAYMENT 

Practically  all  sugar  beet  contracts  now  in  force  in  California 
provide  for  payment  to  the  grower  for  all  beets  coming  up  to  specified 
requirements  delivered  by  him  to  the  sugar  company,  on  a  double 
sliding  basis  according  to  (1)  the  sugar  content  of  his  beets,  and  (2) 
the  price  obtained  by  the  company  for  the  sugar  secured  from  the 
season's  run  of  beets.  Only  occasionally  are  contracts  drawn  on  the 
flat  rate  basis,  the  terms  of  which  provide  that  the  company  will  pay 
a  stated  sum  per  ton  for  all  beets  delivered  to  it  in  accordance  with 
stipulations  governing  the  growing  of  the  beets,  sugar  content,  and 
purity. 

Two  schedules  of  payment  are  in  force  in  California.  The 
"southern  contract,"  as  the  agreement  in  use  by  the  American  Beet 
Sugar  Company,  the  Holly  Sugar  Corporation,  and  the  Los  Alamitos 
Sugar  Compan}^  is  called,  specifies  payment  for  beets  in  accordance 
with  the  f  ollowing  schedule : 


THE  "SOUTHEBN"  CONTEACT 


Net 
selling 

Sugar  content  of  beets 

price  of 
sugar 

12% 

13% 

14% 

15% 

16% 

17% 

18% 

19% 

20% 

21% 

22% 

$5.00 

$  6.00 

$  6.50 

$  7.00 

$  7.50 

$  8.00 

$  8.50 

$  9.00 

$  9.50 

$10.00 

$10.50 

$11.00 

6.00 

7.20 

7.80 

8.40 

9.00 

9.60 

10.20 

10.80 

11.40 

12.00 

12.60 

13.20 

7.00 

8.40 

9.10 

9.80 

10.50 

11.20 

11.90 

12.60 

13.30 

14.00 

14.70 

15.40 

8.00 

9.60 

10.40 

11.20 

12.00 

12.80 

13.60 

14.40 

15.20 

16.00 

16.80 

17.60 

9.00 

10.80 

11.70 

12.60 

13.50 

14.40 

15.30 

16.20 

17.10 

18.00 

18.90 

19.80 

10.00 

12.00 

13.00 

14.00 

15.00 

16.00 

17.00 

18.00 

19.00 

20.00 

21.00 

22.00 

The  agreement  provides  that  "sound  beets  shall  be  bought  and 
paid  for  at  a  price  per  net  ton  based  on  the  average  net  price  f.o.b. 
Factory  received  for  sugar  sold  by  the  Beet  Sugar  Companies  of 
Southern  California  (after  deducting  any  tax  on  sugar,  not  now, 
but  hereafter  imposed  by  law),  during  the  period  of  twelve  months, 
beginnning  July  1st."  A  price  for  his  beets  based  on  five-cent  sugar 
is  guaranteed  the  grower.     Fractions  of  sugar  prices  and  tests  are 


10 


UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 


provided  for.  Initial  payments  on  the  basis  of  a  five-cent  net  selling 
price  for  sugar  are  made  on  the  15th  of  each  month  for  beets  delivered 
during  the  previous  month,  or  on  such  higher  basis  as  may  be  con- 
sistent with  the  outlook  as  to  the  probable  net  selling  price  of  sugar. 
Further  settlements  are  made  from  time  to  time  in  accordance  with 
the  net  selling  price  of  sugar,  final  settlement  being  made  not  later 
than  August  1st  of  the  following  year.  All  payments  except  the  final 
payment  are  based  upon  the  anticipated  net  price  to  be  received 
for  sugar  from  harvest  until  August  first  of  the  succeeding  year.  If 
it  develops  that  the  Company  anticipated  a  price  higher  than  the 
price  ultimately  received,  or  through  inadvertence  overpays  the 
grower,  the  grower  is  then  called  upon  to  repay  the  factory  an  amount 
equal  to  such  overpayment.  Freight  is  paid  by  the  company  for  beets 
loaded  at  a  company  dump  and  for  fully  loaded  cars  shipped  from 
parts  where  growers  must  attend  to  the  loading.  In  addition  the 
grower  is  allowed  15c  per  net  ton  if  he  does  the  loading. 

The  "northern  contract"  or  schedule  used  by  growers  delivering 
to  the  Union  Sugar  Company,  the  Spreckels  Sugar  Company,  and  the 
Alameda  Sugar  Company  is  as  follows : 

THE  "NORTHERN"  CONTEACT 


Net 
price  re- 

Sugar content  of  beets 

ceived 

for 
sugar 

12% 

13% 

14% 

15% 

16% 

17% 

18% 

19% 

20% 

21% 

22% 

Cents 

5 

$  4.66 

$  5.05 

$  5.44 

$  5.83 

$  6.22 

S  6.61 

$  7.00 

$  7.38 

$  7.77 

$  8.16 

$  8.55 

6 

5.60 

6.07 

6.53 

7.00 

7.47 

7.93 

8.40 

8.87 

9.33 

9.80 

10.27 

7 

6.80 

7.37 

7.93 

8.50 

9.07 

9.63 

10.20 

10.77 

11.33 

11.90 

12.47 

8 

8.20 

8.88 

9.57 

10.25 

10.93 

11.62 

12.30 

12.98 

13.67 

14.35 

15.03 

9 

9.60 

10.40 

11.20 

12.00 

12.80 

13.60 

14.40 

15.20 

16.00 

16.80 

17.60 

10 

10.66 

11.55 

12.44 

13.33 

14.22 

15.11 

16.00 

16.88 

17.77 

18.66 

19.55 

Fractions  of  sugar  prices  and  beet  tests  are  figured  to  the  nearest 
one-tenth  and  prices  of  beets  testing  above  or  below  percentages 
shown  in  table  are  increased  or  diminished  proportionately. 

Company  sales  as  a  means  of  determining  net  prices  received 
for  sugar,  period  for  completing  payments,  and  manner  of  making 
initial  and  subsequent  payments  are  substantially  the  same  as  the 
corresponding  provisions  in  the  southern  contract.  The  conditions 
governing  payment  of  freight  by  the  company,  rejecting  beets  testing 
less  than  11  per  cent  (appearing  in  the  contract  of  one  company), 
payment  by  the  grower  of  demurrage  charges  if  caused  by  the  grow- 


CIRC.  302]  THE    SUGAR   BEET   IN    CALIFORNIA  11 

er's  delay  in  loading,  and  permission  to  take  field  samples  for  testing 
sugar  content  are  incorporated  in  the  northern  contracts. 

The  southern  contract  was  placed  in  force  on  the  theory  that 
farmers  would  be  paid  for  one-half  of  the  sugar  in  the  beets,  the 
mill  retaining  the  other  half  to  cover  its  expenses  and  to  provide  a 
profit. 

The  factory  does  not  extract  all  the  sugar  from  the  beets.  For 
a  typical  five  year  period  the  extraction*  in  California  has  varied 
from  90.4  to  94.4  per  cent  of  the  sugar  in  the  beets.  To  put  it  another 
way,  from  15.97  to  17.33  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  the  beets  delivered 
to  the  mill  is  recovered  as  sugar  in  the  factory  processes.  The  sugar 
percentage  of  the  beets  themselves  analized  from  17.66  to  18.35  per 
cent  sugar. 

Other  general  provisions  set  forth  in  all  the  California  agreements 
include : 

Permission  for  grower,  at  his  own  expense,  to  place  a  representative  in  scale 
house,  tare  room,  and  beet  laboratory  to  check  weights  and  work  done;  such 
representative  to  be  experienced  in  the  line  of  work  to  be  performed  and  satis- 
factory to  the  company. 

Kelease  of  company  if  causes  arise  over  which  the  company  has  no  control 
which  make  impossible  the  working  up  of  the  beets.  This  provision  usually 
calls  for  a  payment  by  the  company  for  seeded  land  at  the  rate  of  $15.00 
per  acre,  the  grower  being  allowed  to  retain  all  undelivered  beets. 

Eight  of  company  to  enter  lands  under  contract  when  money  has  been 
advanced  by  company  for  the  purpose  of  properly  caring  for  any  beets  growing 
thereon. 

Grower 's  agreement  not  to  assign  contract  or  to  mortgage  crop  without  written 
consent  of  the  factory. 

The  California  schedules  are  the  most  advanced  and  the  fairest 
of  any  in  the  United  States,  because  they  require  testing  the  beets 
of  each  individual  grower,  a  job  entailing  considerable  expense  and 
the  maintenance  of  a  large  laboratory,  but  resulting  in  payment  for 
quality  and  thereby  stimulating  effort  among  growers  to  produce 
more  and  better  beets. 

CULTURAL   METHODS 

Half  a  century  of  experiment  and  experience  has  resulted  in  the 
accumulation  of  a  mass  of  information  concerning  the  best  methods 
to  be  used  in  raising  sugar  beets. 

Preparation  of  Seedbed. — A  good  seedbed  is  essential  in  the  pro- 
duction of  sugar  beets.     If  maximum  crops  are  to  be  secured,  the 


*  As  reported  in  the  Yearbook  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri.,  1919-1923. 


12  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 

land  must  be  placed  in  a  fine  state  of  cultivation.  This  means  sub- 
jection of  raw  land,  eradication  of  the  residue  of  former  crops,  such 
as  alfalfa  roots  or  corn  stubble,  breaking'  up  of  plow  soles,  and 
destruction  of  weed  growth.  Usually  a  plowing  is  given  two  months 
or  more  in  advance  of  seeding  and  the  soil  worked  down  to  a  fine 
seedbed.  Since  the  beet  is  a  deep-rooting  crop,  the  land  should  be 
plowed  as  deep  as  is  consistent  with  its  past  handling,  regulating 
the  depth  of  plowing  to  prevent  the  bringing  up  of  more  than  an 
inch  or  two  of  soil  heretofore  unplowed.  When  deep  plowing  is  not 
possible  or  when  a  hard  layer  or  plow  pan  exists  beneath  the  depth 
reached  by  the  plow,  it  is.  well  to  follow  the  plowing-  with  subsoiling 
to  an  additional  depth  of  four  to  six  inches.  This  tends  to  break  up 
any  plow  pan  which  may  exist  and  provides  a  still  deeper  seedbed. 
The  objects  of  thorough  preparation  are : 

(1)  To  furnish  a  medium  in  which  the  beet  can  freely  develop  and  which 
permits  the  root  to  penetrate  downward  and  thus  discourage  growth  above 
ground;  (2)  to  provide  a  deep  feeding  area;  (3)  to  increase  the  water-holding 
capacity  of  the  soil;  and  (4)  to  destroy  such  insect  and  fungous  troubles  as  are 
susceptible  to  control  by  this  means. 

The  operations  following  plowing  consists  of  frequent  use  of  land 
cultivator,  ringroller,  plank  drag,  harrow,  and  possibly  a  replowing, 
to  conserve  moisture,  destroy  weeds,  and  prepare  and  preserve  a 
seedbed  until  the  planting  season  opens.  Thorough  cultivation  of 
this  sort  results  in  a  seedbed  capable  of  germinating  a  high  percentage 
of  seed  and  in  conditions  favorable  to  the  growth  of  the  young 
seedling  from  the  beginning. 

In  plowing  land  left  rough  from  the  harvesting  of  previous  crops 
or  from  a  previous  plowing,  it  is  advisable  to  roll  or  disk  the  field 
in  advance  with  a  view  to  breaking  up  clods  which  if  turned  under 
would  interfere  with  the  preparation  of  a  good  seedbed.  The  degree 
of  packing  which  must  be  practiced  depends  on  the  season,  being  less 
when  rainfall  is  expected  and  more  when  the  rainy  season  is  nearly 
over  and  drying  conditions  prevail.  The  aim  is  to  secure  in  the  final 
result  a  firmed  cultivated  area  well  united  with  the  undisturbed 
subsoil  beneath.  When  much  manure,  weeds,  or  similar  material  has 
been  turned  under,  special  care  is  needed  to  insure  a  proper  contact. 
If  the  amount  of  green  stuff  is  excessive,  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to 
reirrigate  and  rework  the  land  before  a  satisfactory  seedbed  can  be 
secured. 

In  general,  the  fall  and  early  winter  preparation  is  the  more 
important.    In  the  spring,  plowing  may  not  be  required,  unless  weed 


CIRC.  302]  THE   SUGAR   BEET   IN    CALIFORNIA  13 

growth  or  packing  is  excessive.  In  fact,  in  handling  all  types  of 
heavy  soil  the  less  they  are  opened  up  in  the  spring  the  better,  as  the 
limits  of  their  either  being  too  wet  or  too  dry  are  very  close.  Fall 
plowing  a  little  on  the  dry  side,  immediate  harrowing,  frequent  use 
of  the  weed  cutter  during  the  winter,  followed  in  the  spring,  by  a 
shallow  cultivation,  ringrolling,  dragging,  and  harrowing  to  settle 
the  seedbed  is  the  best  procedure. 

Since  irrigation  is  generally  practiced  in  sugar-beet  production, 
the  necessary  ditching,  levelling,  checking  and  preparation  of  the  field 
for  the  handling  of  the  water  precedes  the  preparation  of  the  seedbed. 

Time  of  Planting. — The  time  of  commercial  planting  in  California 
extends  from  November  1  to  June  1,  local  conditions  largely  influenc- 
ing the  time  when  the  seed  is  sown.  In  general,  fall  planting — 
November  and  December — is  more  common  in  the  southern  portion 
of  the  state;  winter  planting — January  and  February — in  the  beet 
growing  sections  of  the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  valleys ;  and 
spring  planting  in  the  coast  sections,  such  as  Monterey  and  Santa 
Barbara  counties.  Local  conditions  will  determine  the  best  time  to 
sow,  but  as  a  general  recommendation,  early  planting  is  recommended. 
Although  early  planting  carries  with  it  attendant  difficulties  of  soil 
preparation,  danger  of  root  rot  and  crusting,  the  increased  tonnage 
of  beets  and  sugar  per  acre  obtained  warrants  early  planting,  even 
though  it  becomes  necessary  to  replant  occasionally.  In  the  interior 
valleys  where  warm  weather  begins  at  an  early  date,  early  planting 
is  essential  to  insure  well-established  growth  before  the  heat  and  dry- 
ness of  late  spring  and  summer  descend  upon  the  fields.  The  danger 
of  beet  blight  further  justifies  the  general  recommendation  that  early 
planting  should  be  the  rule. 

In  certain  sections,  especially  in  the  Sacramento  Valley  and  some 
of  the  central  coast  sections,  it  is  possible  to  plant  beets  so  early  that 
a  considerable  percentage  will  send  up  seed-stalks.  As  seed  formation 
progresses,  the  sugar  content  of  the  root  is  reduced,  and  the  beets 
become  too  woody  for  profitable  working.  "Early  planting,"  there- 
fore, must  be  construed  as  meaning  the  planting  of  the  seed  as  early 
as  possible  while  guarding  against  planting  so  early  that  seed  pro- 
duction replaces  satisfactory  maturing.  Experience  indicates  that 
the  limits  of  the  preferable  time  of  planting  for  various  sections  is : 

Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  valleys,  January  1  to  March  15. 
Southern  California,  November  15  to  April  1. 
Central  Coast  counties,  February  1  to  June  1. 


14  UNIVERSITY   OF    CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT   STATION 

Late  planted  beets  sometimes  look  greener  and  have  larger  and 
more  luxuriant  tops  than  early  planted  beets,  but  the  actual  tonnage 
of  roots  secured  is  generally  greater  from  the  early  plantings.  If 
cool  weather  exists  when  early  planted  seedlings  are  coming  up,  the 
beets  will  develop  a  small,  compact  top,  but  the  greater  supply  of 
available  moisture  and  the  longer  growing  season  tend  to  result  in 
bigger  roots. 

When  planting  in  advance  of  copious  anticipated  rains,  followed 
as  they  usually  are  by  heavy  winds  which  crust  the  soil,  planting 
should  be  made  early  enough  to  give  the  seedlings  time  enough  to 
form  several  true  leaves  in  advance  of  the  storms,  or  else  seeding 
should  be  delayed  until  after  these  storms  are  past. 

If  seeding  is  done  in  late  spring  when  sufficient  moisture  is  not 
available  to  germinate  the  seed,  an  irrigation  should  be  given  before 
seeding.  Success  does  not  usually  attend  any  effort  to  germinate  seed 
by  flood  irrigation,  as  crusts  form  to  a  detrimental  extent,  but  the 
furrow  system  of  irrigation  can  sometimes  be  practiced  to  advantage. 

If  a  crust  forms  before  the  seed  germinates,  care  to  break  this 
crust  is  essential  before  the  young  germinating  plantlets  turn  yellow 
(noted  by  turning  over  the  crust  and  inspecting  the  germinating 
seed).  This  can  be  done  on  most  soils  by  a  light  harrowing  diagon- 
ally across  the  rows  with  the  spike-tooth  harrow,  inclining  the  teeth 
to  the  rear  or  setting  them  back  to  the  point  where  they  merely 
penetrate  the  crust,  or  by  a  rolling  with  Culti-packer.  Usually, 
however,  under  such  conditions  replanting  is  advisable  and,  in  fact, 
necessary  if  the  seedlings  are  yellowed  or  the  final  stand  irregular. 

In  some  sections,  especially  if  the  land  is  charged  with  alkali,  early 
planting  is  practiced,  even  though  the  land  is  dry,  the  seed  being 
placed  very  close  to  the  surface,  and  the  winter  rains  counted  upon 
to  firm  the  seedbed,  germinate  the  seed,  and  keep  the  plants  growing. 

Planting. — The  company  furnishes  the  necessary  seed  to  the 
farmer  at  a  fixed  price.  Such  seed  is  imported  from  Europe.  The 
Netherlands,  Germany,  and  Denmark  are  the  principal  sources  of 
sugar  beet  seed,  although  some  is  supplied  by  Russia  and  France. 
No  seed  for  commercial  planting  is  grown  in  California. 

The  seed  is  sowed  by  drills  capable  of  planting  four  or  eight  rows 
at  once,  spaced  to  distances  ranging  from  sixteen  inches  to  twenty- 
four  inches  between  rows,  with  twenty  or  twenty-two  inches  the  more 
common  spacing.  The  drills  place  any  desired  amount  of  seed  at 
depths  ranging  from  one-half  inch  to  three  inches  or  more,  cover  the 
seed  and  if  desired,  compress  the  soil  above  them.     The  width  of  row 


ClEC.  302]  THE   SUGAR   BEET   IN    CALIFORNIA  15 

depends  on  the  size  of  beet  desired  and  the  growing  conditions.  Profit- 
able close  spacing  is  possible  only  on  fertile  lands  with  proper 
conditions  of  water  and  climate,  and  careful  attention  to  the  care 
of  the  growing  crop.  On  less  fertile  lands,  or  where  water  is  insuffi- 
cient, greater  spacing  is  desirable.  A  seedbed  properly  prepared 
for  the  reception  of  the  seed  will  permit  a  one-inch  or  shallower 
planting  and  insure  a  stand.  If  deeper  planting  is  necessary,  greater 
attention  to  the  preparation  of  future  seedbeds  will  be  in  order. 

The  depth  of  planting  should  be  carefully  determined.  The  rut 
in  which  the  seed  is  dropped  is  comparatively  narrow  so  that  large 
seed  balls  will  not  reach  the  bottom  unless  care  is  exercised  when 
using  a  supply  having  a  majority  of  large  seed  balls  to  set  the  seeder 
so  that  the  seed  will  be  placed  at  the  desired  depth. 

Early  in  the  season,  when  the  subsoil  is  inclined  to  be  cold  and 
future  rains  are  expected,  quick  germination  is  desired,  and  shallow 
planting  to  secure  surface  warmth  should  be  the  rule.  Under  these 
conditions,  the  minimum  amount  of  seed  is  used,  with  little  or  no 
pressure  being  applied  to  the  press  wheels  of  the  machine.  Later  in 
the  season,  when  the  moisture  is  receding  or  evaporating  rapidly, 
more  seed  is  provided  and  placed  deeper  in  the  soil.  In  instances 
where  the  moisture  is  three  inches  or  more  from  the  surface,  it  is 
desirable  to  clamp  "clod  pushers"  upon  the  runner  brace,  just  in 
advance  of  the  runner  and  at  an  elevation  of  about  one  and  one-half 
inches  in  a  parallel  line  above  the  bottom  of  the  runner.  This  reduces 
the  amount  of  soil  through  which  the  young  sprouts  must  penetrate 
to  reach  the  surface.  To  conserve  the  moisture  and  to  hasten  ger- 
mination, some  pressure  is  applied  to  the  press  wheels  which  pack 
the  soil  directly  over  the  seed. 

From  twelve  to  twenty  pounds  of  seed  are  required  per  acre,  with 
fifteen  pounds  the  general  rule.  When  a  large  acreage,  100  acres 
or  more,  is  to  be  seeded,  the  work  should  be  so  planned  that  a  delay 
in  seeding  occurs  sufficiently  often  to  lengthen  the  thinning  time, 
and  to  prolong  the  ripening  season.  A  four-row  drill  will  seed  about 
ten  acres  a  day  and  thinners  can  handle  about  one-fourth  to  one-half 
an  acre  per  man  daily,  thus  indicating  something  of  the  limits  of  time 
in  which  the  work  should  be  completed. 

Cultivation. — Some  growers  roll  their  fields  with  a  smooth  roller 
as  soon  as  the  crop  is  well  up,  in  advance  of  any  cultivation.  The 
rolling  disturbs  any  crust  which  may  occur,  packs  the  land,  insures 
a  more  event  distribution  of  moisture,  facilitates  the  use  of  the  culti- 
vator, and  materially  lessens  the  labor  of  thinning.     Cultivation  is 


16  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 

started  as  soon  as  the  rows  are  well  defined  and  is  designated  to 
provide  the  three-fold  object  of  weed  destruction,  aeration,  and  main- 
tenance of  a  loose  earth  mulch.  The  first  cultivation  precedes  the 
thinning,  cultivators  being  used  which  are  equipped  with  weed  knives 
for  removal  of  weeds  between  rows,  cutting  as  close  to  the  beets  as 
possible. 

Subsequent  cultivations,  three  or  more  in  number,  are  given  at 
intervals  of  ten  days  to  two  weeks  and  continued  until  the  size  of 
the  plants  prohibits  horses  and  implements  from  passing  down  the 
rows.  The  narrow  chisels  (1%  inch  to  IV2  inch)  and  the  duck-foot 
cultivator  teeth  with  weed-cutter  attachment  are  generally  used,  being 
attached  to  special  two-horse  adjustable  cultivator  frames  capable  of 
cultivating  four  rows  at  a  time.  The  wheels  are  built  "to  castor" 
and  are  controlled  by  a  foot  pedal  enabling  the  operator  to  shift 
the  direction  in  following  the  rows.  Deep  cultivation  should  be  the 
rule  as  the  season  progresses,  to  permit  even  expansion  of  the  growing 
beets,  and  easier  plowing-out  at  harvest  time.  The  total  number  of 
cultivations  given  the  crop  vary  in  different  sections,  but  more  rather 
than  less  than  the  usual  practice  should  be  the  rule. 

Destruction  of  all  weeds  is  important.  Morning  glory  or  Johnson 
grass  must  not  occupy  the  land  given  over  to  beets,  and  to  a  lesser 
degree  the  same  statement  applies  to  bur  clover,  pigweed,  mustard, 
dock,  and  other  common  weeds. 

Thinning. — Since  each  seed-ball  contains  several  beet  seeds,  more 
plants  will  be  produced  than  are  needed,  and  when  the  young  beets 
are  established,  they  must  be  thinned  to  provide  sufficient  area  for 
unobstructed  development  of  the  selected  plants.  Hand  labor,  using 
short-handled  beet  hoes,  is  the  only  practical  method  of  doing  this 
work  as  no  machine  for  the  purpose  has  thus  far  been  perfected. 
Sufficient  labor  should  be  available  to  complete  the  thinning  within 
the  time  limits  best  suited  to  this  work.  In  sediment  soils  thinning 
starts  when  the  beets  have  four  true  leaves,  but  in  peat  lands  a  later 
age  is  deemed  to  be  decidedly  better  and  thinning  is  delayed  until  the 
beets  are  six  inches  high.  Blocking  ahead  of  thinning  where  it  can 
be  done,  is  advisable.  Blocking  consists  in  first  hoeing  out  the  spaces 
to  be  left,  leaving  the  remaining  beets  in  small  bunches  from  which 
the  beet  selected  to  remain  will  be  chosen  in  the  final  thinning. 

Spacing  varies  from  eight  to  eighteen  inches,  the  same  qualifica- 
tions holding  in  determining  the  distance  as  pointed  out  above  with 
reference  to  the  distance  between  rows.  Spacing  to  ten  or  twelve 
inches  is  the  more  general  practice.     In  thinning,   care  should  be 


Circ.  3021 


THE    SUGAR   BEET   IN    CALIFORNIA 


17 


observed  to  space  accurately,  to  reserve  the  sturdiest  beets,  to  pull  by 
hand  the  beets  close  to  the  one  which  is  to  be  left,  to  hoe  deep  enough 
to  prevent  resprouting,  and  to  avoid  unnecessary  digging  around 
the  plant  to  be  left. 

Thinning  should  be  regulated  to  result  in  the  selection  of  the 
strongest  beets,  their  even  distribution  throughout  the  row,  and  the 
destruction  of  all  weeds  in  the  row  or  immediately  around  the  beets. 

Irrigation. — As  sugar  beets  draw  heavily  upon  the  moisture 
supply  in  the  soil,  irrigation  is  necessary  except  under  unusually 
favorable   natural   conditions.     Proper   regulation   of   soil   moisture 


Fig.  4. — The  furrow  system  of  irrigation,  which  is  replacing  the  older  method 
of  flooding. 

requires  that  sufficient  moisture  be  available  to  germinate  the  seed 
and  bring  it  well  through  the  thinning  period,  a  maximum  supply 
from  the  eight-  or  ten-leaf  stage  until  six  or  eight  weeks  before  har- 
vest, and  a  gradually  diminishing  supply  during  these  last  six  or 
eight  weeks  to  permit  proper  ripening  with  its  attendant  increase 
in  sugar  content.  The  need  of  moisture  may  be  determined  by  exam- 
ination of  the  soil  itself  to  the  depth  to  which  the  root  system  is 
developing,  by  a  darkening  to  a  purplish  or  bluish  green  of  the  light 
green  color  of  normal  beets,  by  increasing  flabbiness  of  root  or  leaf 
stem,  by  lack  of  vigor,  and  by  a  wilting  not  caused  by  excessive  heat. 
On  large  tracts  it  is  better  to  start  irrigating  too  early  rather  than 
too  late,  as  complete  recovery  will  not  follow  when  beets  are  permitted 
to  reach  the  stage  of  acute  suffering  for  want  of  water. 


18  UNIVERSITY    OP    CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT    STATION 

The  flooding  system  of  irrigating,  long  the  prevailing  custom  in 
this  state,  is  being  replaced  by  furrow  irrigation.  This  is  a  wise 
change  in  method,  because  flooding  is  not  only  wasteful  of  water  but 
results  in  greater  evaporation,  and  increase  in  baking  and  cracking 
of  the  heavier  soils.  In  the  new  beet  growing  districts  of  the  deltas 
fully  90  per  cent  of  the  acreage  is  irrigated  by  sub-irrigation.  What- 
ever the  system  used,  care  must  be  exercised  to  provide  ample  mois- 
ture without  over-irrigation  throughout  the  soil  area  occupied  by  the 
root  system.  An  insufficient  amount  will  reduce  tonnage,  while  an 
oversupply  is  not  only  uneconomical,  but  detrimental.  The  rule  in 
irrigating  should  be  to  study  the  movement  of  the  water  in  the  soil  by 
means  of  a  probe,  soil  augur,  or  shovel,  and  aim  to  provide  only  the 
optimum  amount  of  water. 

The  quick  going-back  of  beets  once  they  show  the  need  of  water 
emphasizes  the  necessity  of  applying  water  to  promote  a  steady, 
uniform  growth  before. the  first  signs  of  distress  appear.  A  few  days 
of  insufficient  moisture  are  enough  to  check  growth  seriously,  the 
length  of  time  depending  on  the  climatic  conditions  which  in  turn 
regulate  the  movement  of  the  moisture.  In  hot,  dry,  windy  weather, 
"going  back",  will  be  much  more  rapid  than  during  cool,  foggy 
spells.  Growing  beets  which  become  very  yellow  for  lack  of  water 
are  beyond  the  stage  when  they  can  give  the  largest  returns  from 
irrigation,  but  even  then  an  application  will  usually  pay. 

Water  applied  to  mature  beets  during  hot  summer  weather  tends 
to  preserve  the  beets.  It  also  assists  by  loosening  the  ground  so  that 
plowing-out  is  easier.  Applied  at  this  time,  however,  water  will  not 
increase  tonnage  to  any  appreciable  extent.  During  cool  weather,  or 
at  a  time  of  year  favorable  to  beet  growth,  water  may  prove  detri- 
mental, by  causing  renewed  growth,  especially  if  this  growth  results 
in  the  formation  of  seed  stalks.  The  beets  may  weigh  a  trifle  more 
because  of  the  water  taken  up,  but  the  actual  sugar  content  is  not 
improved. 

Every  irrigation  should  be  followed  by  a  cultivation  as  soon  as 
the  land  is  dry  enough  to  work.  Such  cultivation  will  prevent  baking, 
crusting,  and  cracking,  with  resultant  loss  of  moisture  and  pinching 
of  the  beets. 

Fertilization. — Commercial  fertilizers  are  not  in  general  use  in 
connection  with  growing  sugar  beets  in  this  state.  Trials  with  differ- 
ent fertilizing  ingredients  are  being  made  by  various  mills,  but  thus 
far  the  results  are  not  sufficiently  conclusive  to  justify  extensive 
applications  of  mineral  fertilizers.     Doubtless  as  time  goes  on  more 


Circ.  302] 


THE   SUGAR   BEET   IN    CALIFORNIA 


19 


attention  will  be  given  to  fertilizers,  especially  on  the  lighter,  or  the 
longer  farmed,  or  on  peaty  types  of  soil. 

Application  of  barnyard  manures  to  beet  lands  is  receiving  more 
attention  in  all  parts  of  the  state.  Stable  manures  are  a  valuable 
asset  in  continuous  beet  production  and  deserve  extensive  use,  espec- 
ially on  the  lighter  soil  types. 

Green  manuring  (the  growing  and  plowing  under  of  green  crops 
of  such  plants  as  rye,  vetch,  bitter  clover,  bur  clover,  and  field  peas), 
is  under  trial  but  the  results  are  as  yet  inconclusive. 


Fig.  5. — -Sugar  beets  nearirig  maturity.  This  crop  was  grown  under  coast 
conditions  of  cool  weather,  fogs,  and  long  growing  season. 

On  land  utilized  for  more  or  less  continuous  beet  growing,  plow- 
ing under  the  beet  tops,  rather  than  feeding  them  to  stock,  is  meeting 
with,  increasing  favor. 

Harvesting. — The  time  of  harvest  is  usually  designated  by  the  mill 
contracting  for.  the  beets.  This  varies  somewhat  from  season  to 
season,  as  the  starting  of  the  mill  campaign  is  postponed  until  there 
is  reasonable  assurance  of  an  ample  and  steady  supply  of  satisfactory 
beets.  So  far  as  the  beets  themselves  are  concerned,  harvest  may 
start  at  any  time  after  maturity.  Maturity  is  indicated  by  a  circle 
of  dead  outer  leaves  on  the  individual  plant,  and  a  general  yellowing 


20  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 

appearance  of  the  entire  field,  while  mill  laboratory  tests  for  sugar  of 
typical  field  samples  provide  an  additional  and  very  satisfactory 
check. 

The  time  required  to  reach  maturity  varies  with  the  time  of 
planting.  Fall-sown  beets  require  from  seven  to  eight  months,  early 
spring-sown  beets  from  six  to  seven  months,  while  late  spring-sown 
beets  in  favorable  localities  will  mature  in  from  four  to  five  months. 
The  quickest  maturing  takes  place  in  spring  plantings  in  localities 
of  hot  summer  weather,  and  on  light  soils;  the  opposite  is  true  in 
cooler  sections,  on  the  heavier  types  of  soil,  or  in  fall  plantings. 

Harvesting  starts  with  "lifting"  the  beets.  Specially  constructed 
implements  are  run  down  the  rows  to  loosen  the  plants  in  place.  The 
beets  are  then  removed  by  hand,  several  rows  thrown  together  in  long 
windrows  or  in  piles  and  the  tops  cut  off  by  hand  labor,  using  heavy 
butcher  knives.  A  very  satisfactory  method  is  to  throw  the  beets 
from  nine  rows  into  one  row,  tops  all  pointing  one  way,  and  to  follow 
down  this  row  in  topping,  standing  each  beet  on  its  cut  surface.  A 
space  of  nine  rows  allows  sufficient  room  for  wagons  to  pass  through 
and  places  the  beets  in  a  position  for  quick  loading.  In  different 
sections,  however,  the  prevailing  custom  must  be  followed  to  a  large 
extent,  since  the  type  of  labor  doing  the  hand  work  has  its  own  way 
and  is  not  easily  changed. 

All  beets  to  be  correctly  topped  must  have  the  leaves  and  all 
green  portions  of  the  crown  removed.  This  means  topping  at  the 
ground  line.  The  men  who  do  the  topping  must  be  closely  watched 
in  this  regard  and  required  to  practice  proper  topping.  The  green 
crowns  contain  salts  which  interfere  with  sugar  extraction  in  the 
mill,  and  deductions  to  cover  the  weight  of  such  beets  is  made  by  the 
factory  men.  In  addition  to  paying  for  the  transportation  and 
handling  of  a  portion  of  the  crop  for  which  he  receives  no  return, 
the  grower  who  ships  green  tops  is  taking  from  his  land  the  plant 
food  elements  most  valuable  to  him.  Analyses  indicate  that  of  all 
plant  foods  removed  by  a  beet  crop  in  making  its  growth,  approxi- 
mately 75  per  cent  of  the  total  is  contained  in  the  leaves  and  crowns, 
with  but  25  per  cent  in  the  roots.  The  importance  of  proper  topping 
cannot  be  too  strongly  emphasized. 

After  being  topped,  the  beets  are  loaded  on  specially  constructed 
or  specially  equipped  wagons  for  delivery  to  the  freight  cars  or  to 
the  mill. 


CIRC.  302]  THE    SUGAR   BEET   IN    CALIFORNIA  21 


YIELDS 

Yields  of  beets  vary  within  wide  limits,  ranging  from  yields  which 
are  not  large  enough  to  pay  operating  expenses  to  exceptional  yields 
of  thirty  tons  or  more.  In  general,  ten  tons  represents  about  an 
average  yield  in  this  state,  while  fifteen  tons  is  considered  a  good 
yield.  Some  experienced  growers,  who  operate  under  favorable 
conditions,  obtain  an  average  of  twenty  and  even  twenty-five  tons. 

Yields  of  beets  is  an  important  item  affecting  unit  costs  of  pro- 
duction. This  is  shown  in  the  findings  of  a  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  survey.* 


When  yield  per  acre  was 

Cost  per  acre 

Cost  per  ton 

10  tons  or  less 

$54.11 
65.51 

77.98 

$6.21 

11  to  15  tons 

4.91 

16  tons  or  over 

4.26 

Although  these  actual  costs  are  no  longer  directly  applicable  to 
present-day  conditions,  the  principle  still  holds  that  the  larger  the 
yield  obtained  under  efficient  and  economical  management,  the  less 
is  the  cost  per  ton  of  product. 

THE  SUGAK  BEET  IN  CROP  ROTATIONS 

Crop  rotation  is  perhaps  the  outstanding  development  of  the  past 
decade  in  sugar  growing.  Changing  crops  from  time  to  time  is 
proving  helpful  in  maintaining  sugar  beet  yields  and  in  reaping  the 
benefits  of  sugar  beet  growing  with  subsequent  and  different  crops. 
On  land  annually  receiving  the  beneficial  effects  of  mill  waste  waters, 
crops  of  sugar  beets  can  succeed  one  another  for  several  years,  and 
perhaps  indefinitely,  without  exhausting  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  The 
amounts  of  plant  food  and  lime  deposited  in  the  waste  water  are 
usually  more  than  enough  to  replace  that  removed  by  the  beet  crop. 
In  such  cases,  only  with  increases  in  weeds  or  other  influences  detri- 
mental to  beet  production,  must  beet  culture  be  abandoned. 

On  land  not  receiving  waste  water  the  number  of  crops  which  can 
be  grown  consecutively  cannot  be  specifically  stated.  New  land  will 
produce  crops  for  several  years,  but  ultimately  a  rotation  of  crops  is 
advisable  and  usually  necessary.  Crop  rotation  is  being  consistently 
stressed  by  all  the  California  sugar  beet  companies. 


*  Bulletin  760,  U.S.D. A,  Office  of  the  Secretary,  < '  Farm  Practice  in  Growing 
Sugar  Beets  in  Three  California  Districts,"  1915-1916  conditions. 


22  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 

Two  reasons  justify  rotation  of  sugar  beets  with  other  crops.  The 
first  is  based  on  gradually  decreasing  yields  of  beets  through  diminish- 
ing fertility  or  increase  in  beet  troubles.  Rotation  then  follows  as  a 
means  of  rebuilding  the  crop  producing  power  of  the  land.  The 
second  reason  for  rotation  is  the  advisability  of  securing  the  beneficial 
effects  of  the  sugar  beet  crop  upon  succeeding  crops.  Increased  yields 
of  cereals,  corn,  sorghums  and  beans  usually  follow  sugar  beet  culture. 
The  deep  preparation  of  the  soil  necessary  to  provide  a  seedbed  for 
beets,  the  careful  cultivation  and  deep  working  of  the  land  in  remov- 
ing the  crop,  the  available  plant  food  freed  in  the  decaying  beet  tops 
and  roots  all  help  to  provide  an  environment  capable  of  producing 
increased  yields  of  many  of  the  field  crops  adapted  to  local  conditions. 

In  planning  a  sequence  of  crops  to  be  grown  it  is  advisable  not  to 
precede  beets  with  any  crops  which  will  leave  conditions  which  render 
the  growing  of  beets  difficult,  such  as  the  presence  of  undecayed  corn 
or  sorghum  stubble  or  half -killed  alfalfa  stands. 


BEET  TOPS 

Beet  tops  are  a  valuable  stock  feed  and  a  source  of  additional 
income  whenever  live  stock  is  available  for  feeding,  and  the  tops  can 
be  spared.  Care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  feeding  decayed  or  moldy 
tops  and  to  watch  cattle  for  choking  if  they  are  unused  to  this  kind 
of  feed.  Some  dry  roughage  should  be  fed  with  the  tops  to  avoid 
scouring.  If  these  precautions  are  taken  the  tops,  green  or  dry,  form 
a  valuable  addition  to  the  feed  supply.  Tops  are  salable  whenever 
stock  is  available,  at  either  so  much  per  head  per  day  (e.g.  10  to  15c 
for  mature  cattle,  1  to  l%c  for  sheep),  or  at  so  much  per  ton  of  beets 
delivered  to  the  mill  (e.g.  50c  per  net  ton,  or  $5.00  per  acre  for  a 
10-ton  yield). 

In  selling  or  feeding  tops  the  grower  should  either  have  them  fed 
on  the  land,  or  return  the  equivalent  in  manure,  and  provide  for  the 
removal  of  all  stock  whenever  the  land  is  wet  enough  to  be  in  danger 
of  suffering  from  the  tramping  of  the  stock. 

CONTRACT  LABOR 

As  beet  production  requires  much  hand  work,  especially  in 
thinning,  hoeing,  irrigating,  pulling,  topping,  and  loading,  a  class  of 
labor  able  and  willing  to  do  this  kind  of  work  must  be  available.  The 
usual  California  farmer,  even  though  raising  but  a  few  acres,  does 
not  attempt  to  do  this  work  either  personally  or  with  his  regular  men. 


CIRC.  302]  the   SUGAR   BEET   IN    CALIFORNIA  23 

Much  use  is  made  of  Mexican  and  Filipino  labor.  Some  Japanese, 
Mohammedan  and  Hindu  help  is  occasionally  used. 

Lab  or  Contracts. — A  formal  agreement  is  signed  by  grower  and 
contractor,  setting  forth  the  terms  governing  the  supplying  of  labor, 
manner  of  doing  the  work,  and  the  amount,  time,  and  method  of 
payment.  If  the  entire  season's  work  is  contracted,  a  single  instru- 
ment is  drawn,  but  if  the  term  of  employment  is  for  a  specific  job, 
separate  agreements  may  be  used  for  (1)  thinning,  (2)  hoeing,  (3) 
pulling,  topping  and  loading. 

A  typical  season's  contract  in  use  by  growers  and  contractors  is 
shown  below. 

Typical  Season  Contract  Covering  Hand  Work  on  Sugar  Beets  (1925) 

This  Agreement,  made  and  entered  into  this  day  of  192 

between    hereinafter    called    "Grower"    and 

hereinafter   called   ' i  Contractor. ' ' 

WITNESSETH :  That  for  and  in  consideration  of  the  covenants  herein  con- 
tained on  the  part  of  Grower,  and  the  sum  of  One  Dollar  ($1.00)  in  hand  paid 
by  Grower   to  Contractor,   receipt   of  which   is  hereby   acknowledged,   Contractor 

hereby  covenants  and  agrees  with  Grower  to  do  the  hand  work  on  

acres,  more  or  less,  of  sugar  beets  planted  or  to  be  planted   for  the   season  of 

192 ,  in  the  valley,  County, 

California,  the  particular  tracts  now  being  selected  and  agreed  upon  between 
Grower  and  Contractor,  to  wit.:    

Contractor  Agrees  : 

First — To  commence  to  thin  beets  as  soon  as  directed  by  Grower,  and  to 
provide  sufficient  men  to  complete  the  thinning  before  the  beets  shall  be  4  inches 
high. 

Second — To  thin  out  beets  inches  apart  in  rows  to  satisfaction 

of  Grower,  leaving  beets  to  each  100  feet  of  row;  to  hoe  the  entire 

soil  between  rows  after  beets  are  thinned;  and  to  carefully  pull  or  hoe  out  all 
weeds  growing  thereafter,  until  beets  are  harvested  

Third — When  plowed  by  Grower,  to  pull,  shake  free  from  adhering  earth, 
row  up,  top  and  load  beets  into  wagons;  beets  to  be  topped  cleanly  and  squarely 
with  one  blow  of  the  knife  at  base  or  bottom  of  last  leaves. 

Beets  Avill  be  carefully  plowed  out  by  Grower,  but  any  beets  not  loosened  by 
the  plows  shall  be  dug  out  by  Contractor. 

Fourth — When  beets  are  harvested,  Contractor  shall  provide  sufficient  men 
to  top  and  load  into  wagons  as  many  tons  of  beets  each  day  as  Grower  shall  direct. 

Fifth — Contractor  agrees  to  personally  superintend  the  work  of  cultivation 
and  harvesting  of  beets,  and  to  have  it  done  in  a  proper  and  farmer-like  manner 
and  to  the  satisfaction  of  Grower.  Grower  shall  have  the  right  to  keep  an 
Inspector  in  the  field  to  oversee  the  work  of  Contractor  and  remove  incompetent 
workmen;  and  it  is  further  agreed  that  if  Contractor  or  any  of  his  men  shall 
neglect  or  refuse  to  comply  with  the  above  conditions,  or  neglect  or  refuse  to 
perform  any  of  the  operations  at  the  time  set  or  in  the  manner  prescribed  by 
Grower,  Grower  shall  have  the  right  and  option  to  cancel  this  contract  and  any 
money  that  may  have  become  due  to  Contractor  on  account  of  work  performed, 
shall  be  retained  by  Grower,  as  liquidated  damages,  or  it  shall  be  optional  with 
Grower  to  put  in  men  to  complete  any  work  unfinished  or  neglected  by  Contractor 
or  any  of  his  men,  and  to  charge  the  cost  of  such  labor  to  Contractor. 


24  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 

In  Consideration  Whereof  Grower  Agrees: 

First — To  provide  the  necessary  transportation  to  and  from  the  land  afore- 
said for  men  and  baggage  of  Contractor  from  the  nearest  town  or  railroad 
station. 

Second — To  provide  Contractor  with  hoes,  files  and  knives  to  be  used  in  cul- 
tivating and  harvesting  beets.  Said  hoes,  files  and  knives  to  be  returned  in 
good  order  as  soon  as  work  on  beets  is  finished. 

Third— To  provide  houses  or  tents,  wood  for  cooking  purposes  and  water  for 
men. of  Contractor  while  they  are  engaged  in  the  cultivation  and  harvesting  of 
the  crop. 

Fourth — To  do  all  horse  cultivation  between  beet  rows. 

Fifth — After  beets   are   all  thinned  and  hoed  to   the   satisfaction   of   Grower, 

to  advance  to  Contractor  the  sum  of  per  acre, 

for  each  acre  of  beets  so  thinned  and  hoed;  the  amount  of  said  advances  to  be 
deducted  from  first  moneys  that  shall  become  due  under  this  contract  until  Grower 
is  reimbursed. 

Sixth — To  pay  Contractor  for  all  handwork  performed  in  accordance  with  the 
terms  of  this  agreement  within  fifteen  days  after  said  crop  is  delivered,  said 
payment  to   be   computed   upon   actual   weight   of   clean   beets   weighed   over   the 

scales    of    the    Sugar    Company    at    

at  the  rate  of  per  ton. 

It  is  further  agreed  that  in  the  event  that  said  growing  crop  or  any  portion 
thereof  is  destroyed  or  damaged  by  the  elements  or  by  disease  or  by  insect  pests 
of  any  kind,  or  from  any  other  cause,  to  such  an  extent  as  to  make  it  in  the 
opinion  of  Grower  unprofitable  to  continue  its  cultivation,  Grower  may  cancel 
this  contract  as  to  such  portion  of  said  crop  as  in  his  opinion  is  so  damaged  or 
destroyed,  in  which  event  Grower  will  pay  to  Contractor  for  the  work  actually 
performed  to  such  time. 

Witness  our  Hands  the  day  and  year  first  above  written. 
Witness :  Grower. 

Contractor. 


These  contracts  are  formal  standard  documents  containing  date, 
names  of  contracting  parties,  acreage,  location  of  fields,  signatures. 

Thinning  contracts  set  forth  when  thinning  is  to  be  commenced, 
number  of  men  to  be  supplied,  distance  to  be  left  between  plants, 
quality  of  work,  and  amount  of  hoeing  to  be  done. 

Hoeing  contracts  usually  call  for  a  careful  hoeing  and  weeding 
at  time  of  thinning,  and  one  or  two  additional  hoeings  thereafter  as 
the  grower  may  direct. 

Harvest  contracts  stipulate  how  pulling,  topping,  and  loading  is 
to  be  done,  number  of  men  to  be  furnished,  and  amount  of  supervision 
to  be  supplied. 

The  growTer  agrees  to  cultivate  beets,  to  plow  out  beets  carefully, 
provide  transportation  from  nearest  town  or  railroad  station,  to 
furnish  hoes,  files,  and  knives,  housing  and  cooking  facilities,  make 
prompt  payment  in  accordance  with  agreed  terms.  The  grower 
retains  right  of  inspecting  and  passing  upon  work,  removing  incom- 
petent or  intractable  workers,  and  completing  unfinished  work. 


ClEC.  302]  THE    SUGAR   BEET   IN    CALIFORNIA  25 

Damages  in  the  event  of  unfinished  or  poor  work,  intoxication 
or  committing  of  nuisance  are  provided  by  (1)  holding  back  a  portion 
of  the  money  due  the  contractor  until  the  crop  is  thinned  or  har- 
vested, or  (2)  by  cancellation  of  contract. 

Cancellation  of  contract  is  permitted  if  crop  proves  unprofitable 
because  of  damage  by  elements,  disease  or  insects. 

If  the  grower  carries  workmen's  compensation  insurance,  the 
contractor  may  be  called  upon  to  pay  his  prorata. 

Hiring  labor  away  from  other  growers  is  prohibited  in  some 
contracts. 

Labor  must  be  available  in  sufficient  numbers  to  complete  each 
task  within  the  available  time  limits  and  in  a  proper  manner,  Insuffi- 
cient help  or  insufficient  work  resulting  in  delaying  thinning  until  the 
beet  plants  are  over-large,  carelessness  in  blocking,  spacing,  and  remov- 
ing beets,  improper  topping,  and  incomplete  removal  of  the  crop  at 
harvest  time,  all  affect  the  final  returns  by  reducing  tonnage  or  quality 
or  both. 

BEET  TKOUBLES 

The  limiting  factor  of  sugar  beet  production  in  California  today, 
so  far  as  beet  troubles  are  concerned,  is  the  curly-top  (curly  leaf  or 
blight),  a  disease  resulting  from  the  attacks  of  a  small  insect  (Eutet- 
tix  tenella  Baker),  a  leaf -hopper  one-eighth  of  an  inch  long.  This 
insect,  feeding  upon  the  plant,  infects  it  in  such  a  way  that  all  leaves 
subsequently  produced  come  forth  curled,  stunted  and  distorted, 
while  masses  of  fine,  hairy  rootlets  and  blackened  rings  develop  upon 
and  within  the  beet  root — the  typical  blight  condition. 

Doctor  Henry  H.  P.  Severin  of  the  University  of  California  for 
the  past  eight  years  has  been  investigating  curly-top.  He  contributes 
the  following  descriptions  of  symptoms,  beet  leaf -hoppers,  flights,  and 
planting  suggestions. 

SYMPTOMS 
Symptoms  on  Leaves 

Leaf  Curling. — The  earliest  symptom  of  curly-top  to  appear  in  most  blighted 
beets  is  an  inward  rolling  of  the  lower  and  outer  margin  of  the  youngest  leaves. 
Later  the  entire  blade  may  show  a  pronounced  inward  curling  toward  the  midrib 
(fig.  6). 

Transparent  Venation. — A  reliable  and  constant  symptom  of  curly-top  plainly 
visible  to  the  eye  is  a  transparent  network  of  minute  veins  (fig.  7)  generally 
occurring  on  the  innermost  or  youngest  leaves  of  the  beet.  The  cleared  veinlets 
sometimes  appear  on  the  youngest  leaf  of  beet  seedlings  within  two  days  after 


26  UNIVERSITY   OF    CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT   STATION 

infection  by  the  leaf-hopper.  In  older  beets  in  the  field,  this  symptom  may 
develop  in  from  one  to  two  weeks  or  longer  after  infection,  the  time  depending 
upon  vigor  of  growth,  temperature,  and  moisture  of  soil. 

Protuberances  on  Leaves. — Another  reliable  and  constant  symptom  of  curly- 
top  is  the  roughened  appearance  of  the  lower  surface  of  the  leaves,  developing 
usually  after  the  veinlets  have  become  transparent.  A  closer  examination  of  this 
roughened  condition  upon  its  first  appearance  reveals  numerous  small  elevations 
on  the  veins  resembling  tiny  warts  (fig.  8).  As  the  disease  progresses,  nipple- 
like papillae  and  knot-like  swellings  resembling  galls  develop  here  and  there  on 
the  distorted  veins.  The  diseased  leaves  are  dark  green  in  color,  thick,  crisp 
and  brittle. 


Fig.  6. — Side  view  of  sugar  beet  top  affected  with  curly-top,  showing  inward 
curling  of  leaves  toward  midrib. 

Exudation  from  Leaves. — When  a  large  number  of  curly-top  beets  are 
examined  in  the  field  an  occasional  plant  may  show  a  few  drops  of  clear,  viscid 
liquid  exuding  from  the  petioles,  midrib,  or  veins  on  the  lower  surface  on  the 
leaves.  Later  this  liquid  becomes  black  and  sticky,  and  upon  drying,  forms  a 
brown  crust.  This  syrupy  substance  often  oozes  out  of  many  blighted  beets  after 
the  first  irrigation,  and  attracts  enormous  numbers  of  insects  which  feed  upon 
the  sweet  drops  of  beet  juice. 

Yellowing. — When  curly-top  beets  are  irrigated  they  sometimes  show  a  tem- 
porary improvement  but  later  the  leaves  often  turn  yellow.  It  is  not  to  be 
inferred,  however,  that  the  yellowing  of  the  foliage  occurs  only  after  the  fields 
have  been  irrigated,  the  leaves  of  blighted  beets,  especially  young  plants,  will 
turn  yellow  without  irrigation. 

Sun-scorched  Foliage. — During  very  hot  days  in  the  San  Joaquin,  Sacramento 
and  upper  Salinas  valleys,  the  sugar  beet  foliage  wilts  and  the  outer  leaves 
resting  on  the  soil  become  sun-scorched,  turn  brown,  and  die.  When  the  appar- 
ently healthy  outermost  leaves  of  badly  blighted  beets  become  dry  on  account 
of  sun-scald,  there  remains  a  tuft  of  diseased  leaves  and  the  beet  root  does  not 
increase   appreciably   in   size.      The   beet   often   becomes   soft,   loose   in  the  soil, 


Circ.302] 


THE    SUGAR   BEET   IN    CALIFORNIA 


27 


shrivels,  and  dies,  leaving  a  woody,  shriveled  peg  in  the  center  of  a  hole  in  the 
ground.  Small  patches  of  dead  beets  soon  appear  in  the  field,  giving  a  greater 
opportunity  for  other  leaves  to  become  sunburnt  and  thus  increasing  the  size 
of  the  barren  areas  as  the  season  advances. 


9 


10 


Figs.  7,  8,  9,  10. — Transparent  venation  (7)  and  protuberances  (8)  resulting 
from  curly-top  infection.  The  insect  (enlarged  12  times)  which  is  the  cause  of 
curly-top  (9  and  10). 


Symptoms  on  Eoots 

Hairy  Boots. — When  a  badly  blighted  beet  is  pulled  from  loose  soil,  particles 
of   dirt   sometimes   cling   to   the    rootlets    and   shake    off   with   difficulty.      It    is 


has  been  described  as  "hairy  root"  or  "woolly  root"  or  "whiskered  beets."    In 
harder  soil  these  roots  often  tear  off  when  the  beet  is  pulled. 

Darkened  Eings  in  Beet  Boot. — A  cross  section  of  a  blighted  beet  often  shows 
black  concentric  rings  which  alternate  with  light  circular  areas  (fig.  11).  A 
longitudinal  section  shows  the  dark  discoloration  extending  lengthwise  through 
the  beet. 


28 


UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 


Fig.  11. — Cross  and  longitudinal  sections  of  beet  affected  with  curly-top.  The 
transverse  sections  show  black  concentric  rings  alternating  with  light  circular 
areas.  The  longitudinal  sections  show  the  dark  discolor;) tions  extending  length- 
wise through  the  beet. 


CIRC.  302]  THE    SUGAR   BEET   IN    CALIFORNIA  29 


FLIGHTS  OF  BEET  LEAF-HOPPEES 

The  spring  brood  beet  leaf-hoppers  which  fly  into  the  beet  fields 
are  pale  green  in  color,  the  summer  brood  adults  may  also  be  pale 
green,  light  gray  or  straw-colored  (fig.  9),  while  the  over-wintering 
specimens  have  dark  markings  on  the  wing  covers  (fig.  10). 

Sprifig  Flights. — After  the  pasture  vegetation  becomes  dry  on  the 
plains  and  foothills  of  the  Coast  Kange  from  Mount  Diablo  to  the 
Tehachapi  Mountains  in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley  and  on  the  Gabilan 
Range  in  the  upper  Salinas  Valley,  the  pale  green  spring  brood 
females  fly  into  the  cultivated  areas.  Most  of  the  males  remain  behind 
on  the  plains  and  foothills  and  die.  The  invasion  is  not  in  a  single 
flight.  The  insects  invade  the  cultivated  regions  during  a  period 
of  from  four  to  six  weeks.  After  the  flights  cease  in  the  San  Joaquin 
Valley  the  insects  are  far  more  abundant  on  weeds  of  the  saltbush 
family  (Chenopodiaceae)  to  which  the  sugar  beet  belongs  and  on 
plants  of  closely  related  families  than  on  sugar  beets.  The  multi- 
plication of  the  beet  leaf-hopper,  however,  in  the  Salinas  Valley 
occurs  chiefly  on  beets.  The  beet  leaf-hopper  has  been  bred  from  eggs 
deposited  in  over  fifty  different  Weeds,  thirty  of  which  are  infected 
with  curly-top  under  natural  conditions. 

Autumn  Flights. — During  October  and  November,  the  dark  over- 
wintering adults  fly  from  the  cultivated  areas  of  the  San  Joaquin 
Valley  to  the  plains  and  foothills.  In  the  Salinas  Valley  the  over- 
wintering beet  leaf-hoppers  fly  to  the  foothills,  following  the  Salinas 
River  and  its  tributaries. 


PLANTING  IN  INTEEIOE  EEGIONS 

The  fact  that  most  of  the  beet  leaf-hoppers  leave  the  cultivated 
areas  of  a  natural  breeding  ground  in  the  autumn  has  an  important 
bearing  with  reference  to  the  time  of  planting  beets.  If  beets  are 
planted  in  December,  January  and  February  in  the  interior  regions 
of  California  and  weather  conditions  are  favorable  for  planting 
early,  a  disease-free  crop  can  usually  be  obtained.  Early  planting, 
however,  is  not  always  safe  in  the  San  Joaquin  and  upper  Salinas 
valleys,  as  was  evident  in  1919  when  over  one-half  of  the  beet  crop 
was  blighted  by  the  over-wintering  bugs  which  remained  behind  in 
the  cultivated  areas. 


30  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 


PLANTING  IN  FOG  BELTS 

In  the  fog  belt  early  planting  should  be  discontinued  from  March 
first  until  after  the  spring  flights  cease.  In  the  fog  belt  of  the  Salinas 
valley  late  plantings  in  May  and  June  usually  result  in  a  good  crop. 
In  1925,  however,  the  late  plantings  were  badly  blighted,  owing  to 
the  fact  that  a  second  brood  developed  on  the  foothills. 


OTHER  TROUBLES 

Other  troubles,  which  occur  occasionally  or  in  certain  localities 
attract  the  attention  of  the  growers  but  need  little  more  than  passing 
notice  here,  are  ground  squirrels,  gophers  and  moles,  two  species  of 
nematodes  or  eelworms,  (a)  the  garden  nematode  which  produces 
galls  on  the  rootlets,  found  in  sandy  soil,  and  (b)  the  beet  nematode, 
found  in  heavier  soils,  which  does  not  form  galls.  Among  the  beet 
root-feeding  insects  is  the  beet  root  aphis  which  is  controlled,  accord- 
ing to  reports,  by  keeping  the  moisture  content  of  the  soil  at  the 
optimum,  also  by  crop  rotation  and  clean  cultivation.  Wire  worms 
and  white  grubs  also  attack  the  beet  root.  Several  species  of  small 
black  beetles  (Blapstinus) ,  one-fourth  inch  longv  destroy  the  tiny 
seedlings  as  these  are  coming  up.  They  can  be  controlled  with  bran 
mash  containing  a  soluble  poison  such  as  sodium  arsenate.  Among  the 
insects  feeding  on  the  leaves  are  the  beet  army  worm  and  cutworms 
which  can  be  controlled  with  poisoned  bran  mash  as  made  up  for 
grasshoppers ;  a  green  beetle  with  twelve  spots  (twelve-spotted 
Diabrotica)  ;  flea  beetles;  beet  leaf  miner;  red  spider;  thrips  and 
aphis.  Among  the  diseases  of  the  beet,  other  than  curly  top  dis- 
cussed above,  are  the  following:  leaf  spot  (Cer corpora  beticola), 
rust  (Uromyces  betae),  downy  mildew  (Peronospora  schactii),  mosaic 
disease  of  sugar  beets,  and  seedling  root  rot  (Corticium  vagum, 
Rhizoctonia,  and  Fusarium  sp.). 


ECONOMICS  OF  SUGAR  BEET  PRODUCTION 

The  cost  per  ton  or  per  acre  of  producing  sugar  beets  is  very 
variable.  Capacity  of  operator,  quality  of  land,  suitability  of  en- 
vironment, distance  of  haul,  size  of  acreage,  prevailing  wages,  pests, 
and  costs  of  water  are  factors  which  vary  with  different  growers 
and  in  different  communities. 


CIRC.  302]  THE    SUGAR   BEET   IN    CALIFORNIA  31 

In  1915  and  1916  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
conducted  a  survey  to  determine  costs  in  the  Los  Angeles,  Oxnard, 
and  Salinas  areas,  collecting  records  from  165  California  sugar  beet 
farms.  The  findings  are  available  in  Bulletin  No.  760,  office  of 
Secretary,  U.S.  D.  A.,  Washington,  D.C.  Conditions  have  changed 
since  the  data  were  assembled  and  the  costs  are  no  longer  applicable 
unless  present-day  figures  are  substituted.  The  description  of  meth- 
ods is,  however,  pertinent  and  the  list  of  items  which  enter  into  the 
cost  of  production  is  a  valuable  guide. 

A  complete  listing  of  cost  items  usually  involves  the  inclusion  of 
most  of  the  following  groups : 

1.  Preparation  of  seedbed.  This  includes  removal  of  crop  residues  left 
from  previous  seasons,  applications  of  manure,  irrigations,  plowings,  chiselings, 
diskings,  rollings,  and  other  operations  required  to  prepare  a  suitable  seedbed. 

2.  Seeding. 

3.  Care  of  growing  crop.  This  includes  cost  of  harrowing,  rolling,  thinning, 
hoeing,  cultivating,  and  irrigating. 

4.  Harvest.  This  involves  costs  of  lifting,  pulling,  topping,  loading,  and 
delivery. 

5.  Kent  or  interest  on  the  investment  in  land. 

6.  Interest  on  investment  in  equipment. 

7.  Interest  on  moneys  used  for  operating  expenses. 

The  costs  of  the  different  operations  include  most  or  all  of  the 
following : 

1.  Value  of  operator's  time  utilized  in: 

a.  Manual  labor. 

b.  Attending  to  business  details. 

c.  Supervising  hired  help. 

2.  Cost  of  hired  labor,  including: 

a.  Wages. 

b.  Value  of  board,  housing,  and  other  perquisites. 

3.  Use  of  work  horses:  A  cost  made  up  of: 

a.  Feed. 

b.  Care  (at  barn,  or  pasture,  veterinary,  shoeing,  etc.). 
g.  Depreciation. 

d.  Mortality. 

e.  Taxes. 
/.  Shelter. 
g.  Corrals. 

h.  Use  of  harness,  collars,  halters,  tie  ropes,  etc. 
i.  Interest  on  investment. 


32  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION 

4.  Use  of  motor  equipment — tractors,  trucks,  trailers,  automobiles,  being 
a  cost  made  up  of: 

a.  Fuel. 

b.  Oil. 

c.  Waste,  grease,  etc. 

d.  Eepairs  and  parts. 

e.  Use  of  shelter. 
/.  Depreciation. 
g.  Taxes. 

h.  Insurance. 

i.  Use  of  extra  tools,  shop  facilities,  etc. 

j.  Interest  on  investment. 

5.  Use  of  farm  equipment:  A  cost  made  up  of: 

a.  Eepairs  and  parts. 

b.  Depreciation. 

c.  Taxes. 

d.  Insurance. 

e.  Interest  on  investment. 

6.  Outlay  for  materials:   This  group  includes: 

a.  Beet  seed. 

b.  Irrigation  water. 

7.  Freight  to  destination. 

Many  growers  now  have  a  fair  idea  of  their  operating  costs.  This 
serves  as  a  rough  guide.  A  complete  presentation  of  costs  to  Cali- 
fornia beet  raisers  cannot  be  given,  however,  until  preceded  by  a  care- 
ful survey  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  reliable  data.  When  a  need 
arises  for  such  data  its  collection  presents  no  insurmountable 
obstacles. 

Some  idea  of  the  existing  situation  can  be  gleaned,  however,  from 
the  following  data: 

Beet  seed  costs  15c  per  pound. 

Teamsters  are  being  paid  at  the  rate  of  $3.00  to  $4.00,  this  rate  including 
the  value  of  board.  During  harvest  season  the  rate  is  approximately  $1.00  per 
day  higher. 

Horse  labor  costs  on  an  average  (from  unpublished  data  collected  by  the 
Division  of  Farm  Management)  approximately  $152  per  horse  per  year. 

Thinning  and  hoeing  costs  vary  with  the  stand,  size  of  job,  and  weeds.  In 
some  sections  thinning  and  hoeing  cost  $10  per  acre.  In  more  favored  sections 
the  cost  is  less,  while  in  weedy  sections  the  cost  climbs  to  $15  or  $18  per  acre. 

Costs  of  hand  work  vary  with  the  size  of  field,  condition  of  stand,  probable 
yield,  working  and  living  conditions,  and  reputation  of  grower  and  contractor. 
For  example,  in  1925  thinning  costs  and  1924  harvest  costs  varied  as  follows: 

Thinning    $4.50     to     $6.50  per  acre 

Hoeing  3.50     to       8.00  per  acre 


CIRC.  302]                           THE   SUGAR   BEET 

IN    CALIFORNIA 

Pulling,  topping  and  loading: 

If  yield  was 

Range  in  prices  paid 

8  tons  per  acre 

88e 

to     $1.35  per  ton 

10  tons  per  acre 

83 

to       1.20  per  ton 

12  tons  per  acre 

80 

to       1.10  per  ton 

14  tons  per  acre 

75 

to       1.10  per  ton 

16  tons  per  acre 

70 

to         .90  per  ton 

33 


Man  labor  is  the  biggest  single  item  entering  into  the  cost  of 
producing  beets.  Attainment  of  increased  profits  therefore  suggest 
that  efficient  use  be  made  of  man  power.  In  percentage  the  item  of 
man  labor  constitutes  close  to  half  the  total  cost  of  production,  and 
necessitates  the  use  of  89  hours  of  man  labor  per  acre.* 

SUMMAKY 

Sugar  beets  have  been  grown  in  California  for  half  a  century, 
since  the  initial  run  at  Alvarado  of  the  first  financially  successful 
sugar  beet  mill  to  operate  in  the  United  States. 

The  acreage  in  sugar  beets  is  now  declining  in  California.  Sugar 
beets  are  grown  in  three  general  areas  of  California  for  nine  factories. 
One  mill  is  idle.  Several  other  mills  have  been  dismantled  during  the 
past  few  years. 

The  blight,  known  as  curly  top,  which  is  transmitted  by  a  leaf 
hopper,  is  the  principal  factor  limiting  expansion  of  acreage.  Cali- 
fornia possesses  satisfactory  conditions  of  soil,  moisture,  climate, 
market  and  labor. 

Sugar  beets  are  commercially  grown  only  under  contract  made 
between  grower  and  a  sugar  mill.  One  general  type  of  contract  is  in 
use,  providing  that  payment  to  grower  shall  be  based  on  the  sugar 
content  of  his  beets  and  the  net  selling  price  of  sugar.  Two  schedules 
for  payment  are  in  operation,  one  set  of  rates  being  used  by  factories 
in  the  southern  part  of  the  state,  and  another  set  by  factories  in  the 
northern  area. 

Deep  soil  preparation,  formation  of  a  good  seedbed,  early  planting, 
frequent  cultivation,  proper  thinning,  optimum  moisture  supply,  and 
mainteance  of  soil  fertility  are  particularly  necessary  if  the  best 
results  are  to  be  obtained  with  sugar  beets. 

Preferable  times  of  planting  are : 

Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  valleys,  January  1  to  March  15. 
Southern  California,  November  15  to  April  1. 
Central  coast  counties,  February  1  to  June  1. 


*U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  Bull.  760:1-48,  1919. 


34  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT   STATION 

In  harvesting,  the  beets  should  be  topped  at  the  ground  line  to 
insure  minimum  removal  of  plant  food. 

Beets  are  placed  in  rotation  when  yields  begin  to  decrease  or  to 
secure  the  beneficial  effects  of  their  culture  on  subsequent  crops. 

Sugar  beet  tops  are  of  value  for  stock  feed. 

Much  hand  work  is  necessary  in  producing  a  crop,  and  labor  able 
to  do  the  manual  work  must  be  assured.  Mexican  and  Filipinoes 
comprise  the  principal  supply  of  hand  workers.  Labor  contracts  are 
in  use  between  farmers  and  workers. 

Given  a  good  soil  and  good  crop  management,  blight  is  the  limiting 
factor  in  sugar  beet  production.  Its  control  may  be  materially  aided 
by  regulating  planting  and  providing  good  growing  conditions.  Other 
troubles  occurring  from  time  to  time,  or  in  certain  localities,  are  of 
lesser  importance. 


STATION  PUBLICATIONS  AVAILABLE  FOR  FEEE  DISTRIBUTION 


BULLETINS 


No.  No. 

253.   Irrigation   and   Soil   Conditions  in  the  361. 

Sierra   Nevada   Foothills,    California. 

261.  Melaxuma    of    the    Walnut,     "Juglans  362. 

regia."  363. 

262.  Citrus   Diseases   of   Florida   and   Cuba 

Compared  with  Those  of  California.  364. 

263.  Size  Grades  for  Ripe  Olives. 

268.   Growing  and  Grafting  Olive  Seedlings.  365. 

273.  Preliminary  Report  on  Kearney  Vine-  366. 

yard   Experimental   Drain. 

275.  The     Cultivation     of     Belladonna     in  367. 

California. 

276.  The  Pomegranate.  368. 

277.  Sudan   Grass. 

278.  Grain    Sorghums.  369. 

279.  Irrigation   of  Rice  in   California. 

280.  Irrigation    of    Alfalfa    in    the    Sacra-  370. 

mento  Valley.  371. 

283.  The  Olive  Insects  of  California. 
285.  The  Milk   Goat   in   California.  372. 

294.   Bean   Culture  in   California. 
304.  A  Study  of  the  Effects  of  Freezes  on  373. 

Citrus    in    California.  374. 

310.   Plum    Pollination. 

312.  Mariout  Barley. 

313.  Pruning      Young      Deciduous      Fruit  375. 

Trees. 
319.   Caprifigs    and    Caprification.  376. 

324.  Storage  of   Perishable  Fruit  at  Freez- 

ing Temperatures.  377. 

325.  Rice     Irrigation     Measurements     and  379. 

Experiments    in    Sacramento   Valley,  3 80. 

1914-1919. 
328.   Prune   Growing   in   California.  381. 

331.   Phylloxera-Resistant    Stocks. 

334.  Preliminary    Volume    Tables    for    Sec-  382. 

ond-Growth  Redwood. 

335.  Cocoanut   Meal    as    a    Feed   for   Dairy  383. 

Cows   and   Other   Livestock. 

339.  The    Relative    Cost    of    Making    Logs  384. 

from   Small   and  Large  Timber. 

340.  Control     of     the     Pocket     Gopher     in 

California. 

343.  Cheese    Pests    and    Their    Control.  385. 

344.  Cold    Storage   as   an   Aid  to   the   Mar-  386. 

keting  of  Plums. 

346.  Almond    Pollination.  387. 

347.  The  Control  of  Red  Spiders  in  Decid-  388. 

uous  Orchards. 

348.  Pruning  Young  Olive  Trees.  389. 

349.  A    Study    of    Sidedraft    and    Tractor  390. 

Hitches. 

350.  Agriculture      in      Cut-over      Redwood  391. 

Lands. 

352.  Further  Experiments  in  Plum  Pollina-  392. 

tion.  394. 

353.  Bovine   Infectious  Abortion. 

354.  Results  of  Rice  Experiments  in   1922.  395. 

357.  A    Self-mixing    Dusting    Machine    for  396. 

Applying      Dry      Insecticides       and 
Fungicides.  397. 

358.  Black    Measles,    Water    Berries,    and 

Related   Vine  Troubles.  398. 

359.  Fruit   Beverage   Investigations. 


Preliminary  Yield  Tables  for  Second 
Growth  Redwood. 

Dust  and  the  Tractor  Engine. 

The  Pruning  of  Citrus  Trees  in  Cali- 
fornia. 

Fungicidal  Dusts  for  the  Control  of 
Bunt. 

Avocado  Culture  in  California. 

Turkish  Tobacco  Culture,  Curing  and 
Marketing. 

Methods  of  Harvesting  and  Irrigation 
in  Relation  of   Mouldy  Walnuts. 

Bacterial  Decomposition  of  Olives  dur- 
ing  Pickling. 

Comparison  of  Woods  for  Butter 
Boxes. 

Browning  of  Yellow  Newtown  Apples. 

The  Relative  Cost  of  Yarding  Small 
and   Large   Timber. 

The  Cost  of  Producing  Market  Milk  and 
Butterfat  on  246  California  Dairies. 

Pear   Pollination. 

A  Survey  of  Orchard  Practices  in  the 
Citrus  Industry  of  Southern  Cali- 
fornia. 

Results  of  Rice  Experiments  at  Cor- 
tena,    1923. 

Sun-Drying  and  Dehydration  of  Wal- 
nuts. 

The  Cold   Storage  of  Pears. 

Walnut   Culture   in   California. 

Growth  of  Eucalyptus  in  California 
Plantations. 

Growing  and  Handling  Asparagus 
Crowns. 

Pumping  for  Drainage  in  the  San 
Joaquin   Valley,    California. 

Monilia  Blossom  Blight  (Brown  Rot) 
of  Apricot. 

A  Study  of  the  Relative  Values  of  Cer- 
tain Succulent  Feeds  and  Alfalfa 
Meal  as  Sources  of  Vitamin  A  for 
Poultry. 

Pollination    of    the    Sweet    Cherry. 

Pruning  Bearing  Deciduous  Fruit 
Trees. 

Fig   Smut. 

The  Principles  and  Practice  of  Sun- 
drying  Fruit. 

Berseem  or   Egyptian   Clover. 

Harvesting  and  Packing  Grapes  in 
California. 

Machines  for  Coating  Seed  Wheat  with 
Copper    Carbonate   Dust. 

Fruit    Juice    Concentrates. 

Cereal  Hay  Production  in  California. 
Feeding  Trials  with  Cereal  Hay. 

Bark  Diseases  of  Citrus  Trees. 

The  Mat  Bean  (Phaseolus  aconilifo- 
lius). 

Manufacture  of  Roquefort  Type  Cheese 
from    Goat's   Milk. 

Orchard  Heating  in  California. 


CIRCULARS 

No.  No. 

87.  Alfalfa.  154. 
113.   Correspondence  Courses  in  Agriculture. 

117.  The    Selection    and    Cost    of    a    Small  155. 

Pumping  Plant.  157. 

127.  House   Fumigation.  160. 

129.  The  Control  of  Citrus  Insects.  164. 

136.  Melilotus    indica    as    a    Green-Manure  166. 

Crop  for  California.  167. 

144.  Oidium    or    Powdery    Mildew    of    the  170. 

Vine. 

151.  Feeding  and  Management  of  Hogs.  173. 

152.  Some  Observations  on  the  Bulk  Hand- 

ling of   Grain   in    California.  178. 


Irrigation   Practice  in   Growing   Small 

Fruit   in    California. 
Bovine  Tuberculosis. 
Control  of  the  Pear  Scab. 
Lettuce  Growing  in  California. 
Small  Fruit  Culture  in  California. 
The   County  Farm  Bureau. 
Feeding   Stuffs   of   Minor    Importance. 
Fertilizing     California     Soils     for    the 

1918   Crop. 
The    Construction    of   the   Wood-Hoop 

Silo. 
The  Packing  of  Apples  in  California. 


CIRCULARS — 
No. 
179.  Factors    of    Importance    in    Producing 

Milk  of   Low   Bacterial   Count. 
184.   A   Flock   of    Sheep   on   the   Farm. 
190.   Agriculture  Clubs  in   California. 
199.   Onion    Growing   in    California. 

202.  County   Organizations   for   Rural   Fire 

Control. 

203.  Peat   as   a  Manure   Substitute. 

209.  The  Function  of  the  Farm  Bureau. 

210.  Suggestions  to  the  Settler  in  California. 
212.   Salvaging    Rain-Damaged    Prunes. 

214.  Seed  Treatment  for  the  Prevention  of 

Cereal   Smuts. 

215.  Feeding  Dairy  Cows  in  California. 
217.   Methods   for   Marketing  Vegetables   in 

California. 
220.   Unfermented   Fruit   Juices. 
228.  Vineyard  Irrigation  in  Arid  Climates. 

230.  Testing  Milk,    Cream,    and   Skim   Milk 

for  Butterfat. 

231.  The    Home    Vineyard. 

232.  Harvesting    and    Handling    California 

Cherries    for    Eastern    Shipment. 

233.  Artificial   Incubation. 

234.  Winter  Injury  to  Young  Walnut  Trees 

during  1921-22. 

235.  Soil     Analysis     and     Soil     and     Plant 

Inter-relations. 

236.  The     Common     Hawks     and     Owls    of 

California    from    the    Standpoint    of 
the  Rancher. 

237.  Directions  for  the  Tanning  and  Dress- 

ing of  Furs. 

238.  The  Apricot  in  California. 

239.  Harvesting     and     Handling     Apricots 

and  Plums  for  Eastern  Shipment. 

240.  Harvesting    and    Handling    Pears    for 

Eastern   Shipment. 

241.  Harvesting  and  Handling  Peaches  for 

Eastern   Shipment. 

242.  Poultry  Feeding. 

243.  Marmalade  Juice  and  Jelly  Juice  from 

Citrus  Fruits. 

244.  Central  Wire  Bracing  for  Fruit  Trees. 

245.  Vine   Pruning   Systems. 

247.  Colonization    and   Rural   Development. 

248.  Some    Common    Errors    in    Vine  Prun- 

ing and  Their  Remedies. 

249.  Replacing    Missing    Vines. 

250.  Measurement   of    Irrigation   Water   on 

the  Farm. 

251.  Recommendations  Concerning  the  Com- 

mon     Diseases      and     Parasites     of 
Poultry  in   California. 

252.  Supports  for  Vines. 

253.  Vineyard  Plans. 

254.  The  Use  of  Artificial  Light  to  Increase 

Winter   Egg    Production. 

255.  Leguminous  Plants  as  Organic  Fertil- 

izer   in    California    Agriculture. 

256.  The    Control   of   Wild   Morning   Glory. 

257.  The  Small-Seeded  Horse  Bean. 


(Continued) 
No. 


258. 
259. 
260. 

261. 
262. 
263. 
264. 

265. 
266. 

267. 

268. 

269. 

270. 
271. 
272. 

273. 

274. 

275. 

276. 

277. 

278. 
279. 
281. 


282. 

283. 
284. 
285. 
286. 
287. 
288. 
289. 
290. 
291. 

292. 
293. 
294. 
295. 

296. 

297. 

298. 

299. 
300. 


Thinning   Deciduous   Fruits. 

Pear  By-products. 

A  Selected  List  of  References  Relating 
to  Irrigation  in  California. 

Sewing  Grain  Sacks. 

Cabbage   Growing  in   California. 

Tomato  Production  in  California. 

Preliminary  Essentials  to  Bovine 
Tuberculosis  Control. 

Plant   Disease   and   Pest   Control. 

Analyzing  the  Citrus  Orchard  by 
Means   of    Simple   Tree   Records. 

The  Tendency  of  Tractors  to  Rise  in 
Front;    Causes   and   Remedies. 

Inexpensive  Labor-saving  Poultry  Ap- 
pliances. 

An  Orchard  Brush  Burner. 

A  Farm  Septic  Tank. 

Brooding    Chicks    Artificially. 

California  Farm  Tenancy  and  Methods 
of  Leasing. 

Saving  the   Gophered  Citrus  Tree. 

Fusarium  Wilt  of  Tomato  and  its  Con- 
trol by  Means  of  Resistant  Varieties. 

Marketable  California  Decorative 
Greens. 

Home  Canning. 

Head,  Cane,  and  Cordon  Pruning  of 
Vines. 

Olive  Pickling  in  Mediterranean  Coun- 
tries. 

The  Preparation  and  Refining  of  Olive 
Oil   in    Southern   Europe. 

The  Results  of  a  Survey  to  Determine 
the  Cost  of  Producing  Beef  in  Cali- 
fornia. 

Prevention  of  Insect  Attack  on  Stored 
Grain. 

Fertilizing  Citrus  Trees  in  California. 

The   Almond   in   California. 

Sweet  Potato  Production  in  California. 

Milk  Houses  for  California  Dairies. 

Potato   Production   in   California. 

Phylloxera   Resistant  Vineyards. 

Oak  Fungus  in  Orchard  Trees. 

The  Tangier  Pea. 

Blackhead  and  Other  Causes  of  Loss 
of  Turkeys  in  California. 

Alkali  Soils. 

The    Basis   of   Grape    Standardization. 

Propagation   of   Deciduous   Fruits. 

The  Growing  and  Handling  of  Head 
Lettuce  in   California. 

Control  of  the  California  Ground 
Squirrel. 

A  Survey  of  Beekeeping  in  California ; 
The  Honeybee  as  a  Pollinizer. 

The  Possibilities  and  Limitations  of 
Cooperative  Marketing. 

Poultry   Breeding:   Rpcords. 

Coccidiosis  of  Chickens. 


The  publications  listed  above  may  be  had  by  addressing 

College  of  Agriculture, 

University  of  California, 

Berkeley,  California. 


10m-l.'26 


